Table 1 Eligibility criteria for Map 1

Eligible population

Tropical agriculture in terrestrial areas producing rice, soybeans, maize, sugar cane, wheat, oil palm, oil palm fruit, cassava, bananas, seed cotton, vegetables, mangoes, mangosteens, guavas, potatoes, cotton lint, tomatoes, oranges, coffee, yams, rubber, beans, onions, plantains, chilies and peppers, okra, groundnuts, pineapples, chickpeas, papaya, avocado, lychees, durian, rambutan, passionfruit, coconuts, grapes, cacao, clove, and tobacco

Eligible exposure

Tropical agriculture production base (i.e., environmental factors, and genetic resources) and agroecosystem management (i.e., land conversion, socioeconomic factors, natural disturbances, management of soil, pest, and water, land ownership, and crop diversification)

Eligible comparator

Spatial comparator in empirical or experimental studies comprises farmland with or without the agricultural interventions, and studies comparing natural or secondary forests versus farms with the interventions. Furthermore, studies comparing similar types of crop agriculture in different locations (e.g., fields, regions, or countries) will be considered. Temporal comparators examine the difference in outcomes before and after an agricultural intervention or natural disturbance exposure or compare exposures at different points in time (e.g., seasonal changes). The comparisons include different agroecosystem management methods (comparators within group of exposure) applied by farmers. For instance, comparators within groups in the exposure type of soil management are soil tillage versus chemical fertilizer amendment, in the crop diversification exposure type are polyculture with timber versus spice trees, and in the pest management exposure are pest management with natural fallows versus planted fallows, or use of different types of herbicides, and insecticide, etc.). Value ‘studies with other types of comparators’ was coded for studies that have a comparator but not the comparator within the group of exposure type we initially defined as eligibility criteria

Eligible outcome

Changes in biodiversity indicators (e.g., species richness, abundance, composition, and density) in agroecosystems and natural ecosystems

Eligible study types

Empirical, qualitative, quantitative, systematic reviews, reviews, experimental, quasi-experimental, and empirical modeling methods